معاهده تجارت اسلحه در فراز و نشیب انعقاد و اجرا: مطالعه‌ای تطبیقی با موازین عام حقوق بین‌الملل
نویسندگان
1
استادیار دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی
2
دانشجوی دکتری حقوق بین‌الملل، مؤسسه عالی مطالعات بین‌المللی و توسعه ژنو
چکیده
چکیده معاهده تجارت اسلحه پس از مدت‌ها بحث و رایزنی در سطح بین‌المللی، در فرودین ماه سال ۱۳۹۲ به تصویب مجمع عمومی سازمان ملل متحد رسید و سرانجام با ارائه پنجاهمین سند تصویب در مهرماه ۱۳۹۳، از تاریخ سوم دی‌ماه ۱۳۹۳ (۲۴ دسامبر ۲۰۱۴) لازم‌الاجرا شد؛ معاهده‌ای بحث برانگیز که نه‌تنها قبل از انعقاد و در طول مذاکرات منجر به تصویب نهایی آن، مواضع متفاوت دولت‌ها و توجه محافل حقوقی را به خود معطوف کرده بود، بلکه پس از تصویب نهایی و لازم‌الاجرا شدن نیز همچنان موضوع بحث و گفتگو در محافل علمی و سیاسی است. اگر پیش از انعقاد معاهده، پرسش اصلی در اذهان جهانیان، امکان نیل به یک توافق جهانی در مورد تجارت بین‌المللی اسلحه بود، امروز این سؤال مطرح است که آیا این معاهده، با وجود برخی نواقص، می‌تواند در بوته عمل کارساز باشد و هدف و موضوع خود را محقق کند. از آن‌جا که ارائه شمای کلی از پیچیدگی‌ها و تحولات ناظر بر این مسأله، ارزیابی دقیق‌تر از دستاوردهای محتمل این سند را ممکن می‌سازد، مقاله حاضر، نخست ترتیبات و مقررات بین‌المللی مربوط به تجارت سلاح و مهمات قبل از انعقاد معاهده تجارت اسلحه را مورد بررسی قرار داده و آنگاه نگاهی از درون به نقاط ضعف و قوت معاهده ۲۰۱۳ دارد تا مطالعه‌ای تطبیقی بین مفاد این معاهده و مقررات عام حقوق بین‌الملل به دست دهد. * نویسنده مسؤول مقاله: Email: pouria.askary@gmail.com
کلیدواژه‌ها
6. منابع
[1] https://www.oxfam.org/ en/ campaigns/ why-we-need-global-arms-trade-treaty
[2] https:// www.icrc.org/ en/ publication/ 4069- protecting- civilians- and humanitarian- action- through- arms- trade- treaty
[3] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1572, 15 November 2004.
[4] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1521, 22 December 2003.
[5] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/733, 23 January 1992.
[6] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1493, 28 July 2003.
[7] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1011, 16 August 1995.
[8] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1171, 5 June 1998.
[9] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1556, 30 July 2004.
[10] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1390, 28 January 2002.
[11] “Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials”, UN Doc. A/CONF.144/28/Rev1, Adopted by the Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, 27 August to 7 September 1990.
[12] Tugur v. Italy, European Commission of Human Rights, Application No. 2869/93, 18 October 1995.
[13] ILC, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1996, Vol. II, Part 2. A/CN.4/SER.A/1996/Add.l (Part 2).
[14] Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadić, ICTY, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, IT-94-1-A, 15 July 1999.
[15] Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojevic and Dragon Jokic, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT- 02-60, 9 May 2007.
[16] Momcilo Perisic v. Prosecutor, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT-04-81-A, 28 February 2013.
[17] Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaskic, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT-95-14-A, 29 July 2005.
[18] Prosecutor v. Mile Mrksic and Veselin Sljivančanin, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT-95-13/1-A, 5 May 2009.
[19] Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, ICTR, Judgement, Trial Chamber, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, 2 September 1998.
[20] Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor, SCSL, Indictment, Case No. SCSL-03-I, 7 March 2003.
[21] Keith Krause, Arms and the State: Patterns of Military Production and Trade, Cambridge, 1992.
[22] Zeray Yihdego, The Arms Trade and International Law, Hart Publishing, 2007. [23] Geir Ulfestein, Making Treaties Work, Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge, 2007.
[24] Damien Rogers, Post internationalism and Small Arms Control, Ashgate, 2009.
[25] Denise Garcia, Small Arms and Security, Routledge, 2006.
[26] ICRC, “Boston Symposium on the Arms Trade Treaty: Background Paper available at: http:// www.icrc.org/ eng/ resources/ documents/ article/ other/ att-boston symposium- background- papers.htm.
[27] Alexandra Boivin, “Complicity and Beyond: International Law and the Transfer of Small Arms and Light Weapons”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 87, No. 859, September 2005.
[28] ICRC, “Arms Transfers Decisions: Applying International Humanitarian Law Criteria”, 2007, at: https:// www.icrc.org/ eng/ assets/ files/other/ icrc_002_0916. pdf Aaron Fellmeth, “The U.N. Arms Trade Treaty, ASIL Insights”, 20 September 2012, at: http://www.asil.org/ insights/ volume/ 16/ issue/ 30/ un- arms- trade- treaty- temporarily- holstered.
[29] GA, UN Doc. A/RES/43/75, 7 December 1998
[30] UN Register of Conventional Arms, at: http://www.un.org/ disarmament/ convarms/ Register/.
[31] http://www.un-register.org/HeavyWeapons/Index.aspx#.
[32] Report of the United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, UN Doc A/CONF.192/15.
[33] GA, UN Doc. A/60/88 and Corr.1 and 2.
[34] Wassenaar, “Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies”, at: http://www.wassenaar.org/
[35] http://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/06/world/nobel-peace-laureates-draft-a-plan-to-govern-arms-trade.html
[36] European :union: Code of Conduct for Arms Exports, Council of European :union:, 5 June 1998.
[37] European Council Common Position 2008/944/CFSP, defining common rules governing control of exports of military technology and equipment, 8 December 2008.
[38] Nairobi Protocol for the Prevention, Control and Reduction of Small Arms and Light Weapons in the Great Lakes Region, the Horn of Africa and Bordering States.
[39] ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons, Their Ammunition and Other Related Materials.
[40] Central African Convention for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons, their Ammunition and all Parts and Components that can be used for their Manufacture, Repair and Assembly.
[41] Inter-American Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and Other Related Materials.
[42] International Arms Sales Code of Conduct Act of 1999, Part of HR 3194, Consolidated Appropriations Act 106th CONGRESS, 1st Session.
[43] US-EU Declaration on Responsibility in Arms Exports, December 2000.
[44] http://www.un.org/disarmament/update/20130402/ATTVotingChart.pdf,
[45]https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/2013/04/20130410%201201%20PM/Ch_XXVI_08.pdf#page=21
[46] https://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/att/
[47] http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/att/newzealand/rat/un
[48] Doermann, Knut, “Adoption of a Global Arms Trade Treaty: Challenges Ahead”,.at:https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/International%20Law/160413summary.pdf
[49] Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, The Arms Trade Treaty, 2013.
[50] مباحث مطرح شده در نشست علمی تخصصی معاهده تجارت اسلحه؛ واقع‌بینی یا آرمانی، انجمن ایرانی مطالعات سازمان ملل متحد، ۲۷ مهر ۱۳۹۲.
[51] Case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), ICJ, 26 February 2007.
[1] https://www.oxfam.org/ en/ campaigns/ why-we-need-global-arms-trade-treaty
[2] https:// www.icrc.org/ en/ publication/ 4069- protecting- civilians- and humanitarian- action- through- arms- trade- treaty
[3] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1572, 15 November 2004.
[4] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1521, 22 December 2003.
[5] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/733, 23 January 1992.
[6] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1493, 28 July 2003.
[7] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1011, 16 August 1995.
[8] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1171, 5 June 1998.
[9] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1556, 30 July 2004.
[10] SC, UN Doc. S/RES/1390, 28 January 2002.
[11] “Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials”, UN Doc. A/CONF.144/28/Rev1, Adopted by the Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, 27 August to 7 September 1990.
[12] Tugur v. Italy, European Commission of Human Rights, Application No. 2869/93, 18 October 1995.
[13] ILC, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1996, Vol. II, Part 2. A/CN.4/SER.A/1996/Add.l (Part 2).
[14] Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadić, ICTY, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, IT-94-1-A, 15 July 1999.
[15] Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojevic and Dragon Jokic, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT- 02-60, 9 May 2007.
[16] Momcilo Perisic v. Prosecutor, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT-04-81-A, 28 February 2013.
[17] Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaskic, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT-95-14-A, 29 July 2005.
[18] Prosecutor v. Mile Mrksic and Veselin Sljivančanin, ICTY, Judgment, Appeal Chamber, IT-95-13/1-A, 5 May 2009.
[19] Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, ICTR, Judgement, Trial Chamber, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, 2 September 1998.
[20] Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor, SCSL, Indictment, Case No. SCSL-03-I, 7 March 2003.
[21] Keith Krause, Arms and the State: Patterns of Military Production and Trade, Cambridge, 1992.
[22] Zeray Yihdego, The Arms Trade and International Law, Hart Publishing, 2007. [23] Geir Ulfestein, Making Treaties Work, Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge, 2007.
[24] Damien Rogers, Post internationalism and Small Arms Control, Ashgate, 2009.
[25] Denise Garcia, Small Arms and Security, Routledge, 2006.
[26] ICRC, “Boston Symposium on the Arms Trade Treaty: Background Paper available at: http:// www.icrc.org/ eng/ resources/ documents/ article/ other/ att-boston symposium- background- papers.htm.
[27] Alexandra Boivin, “Complicity and Beyond: International Law and the Transfer of Small Arms and Light Weapons”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 87, No. 859, September 2005.
[28] ICRC, “Arms Transfers Decisions: Applying International Humanitarian Law Criteria”, 2007, at: https:// www.icrc.org/ eng/ assets/ files/other/ icrc_002_0916. pdf Aaron Fellmeth, “The U.N. Arms Trade Treaty, ASIL Insights”, 20 September 2012, at: http://www.asil.org/ insights/ volume/ 16/ issue/ 30/ un- arms- trade- treaty- temporarily- holstered.
[29] GA, UN Doc. A/RES/43/75, 7 December 1998
[30] UN Register of Conventional Arms, at: http://www.un.org/ disarmament/ convarms/ Register/.
[31] http://www.un-register.org/HeavyWeapons/Index.aspx#.
[32] Report of the United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, UN Doc A/CONF.192/15.
[33] GA, UN Doc. A/60/88 and Corr.1 and 2.
[34] Wassenaar, “Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies”, at: http://www.wassenaar.org/
[35] http://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/06/world/nobel-peace-laureates-draft-a-plan-to-govern-arms-trade.html
[36] European :union: Code of Conduct for Arms Exports, Council of European :union:, 5 June 1998.
[37] European Council Common Position 2008/944/CFSP, defining common rules governing control of exports of military technology and equipment, 8 December 2008.
[38] Nairobi Protocol for the Prevention, Control and Reduction of Small Arms and Light Weapons in the Great Lakes Region, the Horn of Africa and Bordering States.
[39] ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons, Their Ammunition and Other Related Materials.
[40] Central African Convention for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons, their Ammunition and all Parts and Components that can be used for their Manufacture, Repair and Assembly.
[41] Inter-American Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and Other Related Materials.
[42] International Arms Sales Code of Conduct Act of 1999, Part of HR 3194, Consolidated Appropriations Act 106th CONGRESS, 1st Session.
[43] US-EU Declaration on Responsibility in Arms Exports, December 2000.
[44] http://www.un.org/disarmament/update/20130402/ATTVotingChart.pdf,
[45]https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/2013/04/20130410%201201%20PM/Ch_XXVI_08.pdf#page=21
[46] https://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/att/
[47] http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/att/newzealand/rat/un
[48] Doermann, Knut, “Adoption of a Global Arms Trade Treaty: Challenges Ahead”,.at:https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/International%20Law/160413summary.pdf
[49] Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, The Arms Trade Treaty, 2013.
[50] مباحث مطرح شده در نشست علمی تخصصی معاهده تجارت اسلحه؛ واقع‌بینی یا آرمانی، انجمن ایرانی مطالعات سازمان ملل متحد، ۲۷ مهر ۱۳۹۲.
[51] Case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), ICJ, 26 February 2007.
