وضعیت حقوقی بیتالمقدس در پرتو نظر مشورتی دیوان بین‌المللی دادگستری در خصوص سیاست ها و رویه های اسرائیل در سرزمین‌های اشغالی فلسطین
نویسندگان
1
عضو هیأت علمی پژوهشکده تحقیق و توسعه علوم انسانی (سازمان سمت)
2
دانشجوی دکتری حقوق بینالملل، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران
چکیده
بیتالمقدس، به عنوان شهری با جایگاه ویژه مذهبی و تاریخی، از زمان اشغال آن توسط اسرائیل و تلاش‌های مستمر برای تغییر وضعیت حقوقی، جمعیتی و جغرافیایی آن، موضوعی مناقشه برانگیز در حقوق بینالملل بوده است. مقاله حاضر با استفاده از اسناد تاریخی و حقوقی، بر اساس اصول و قواعد حقوق بینالملل به تحلیل وضعیت حقوقی بیتالمقدس در پرتو نظر مشورتی دیوان بین‌المللی دادگستری در تاریخ ۱۹ ژوئیه ۲۰۲۴ می‌پردازد. در نظر مشورتی اخیر، دیوان ضمن تمرکز بر بیتالمقدس شرقی، بر لزوم اعمال اصول و قواعد حقوق بینالملل بر کل شهر تأکید کرده است. در این نظر مشورتی فقط به بخش بیتالمقدس شرقی پرداخته و اقدامات اسرائیل در آنجا مغایر اصول و قواعد حقوق بینالملل شناخته شده است. اما چنین به نظر می‌رسد که یافتههای دیوان در خصوص بیتالمقدس شرقی قابل تعمیم به بیتالمقدس غربی است و گامی مهم برای تحقق عدالت و روشن شدن وضعیت این شهر است.
کلیدواژه‌ها
موضوعات
منابع
کتاب:
1. Crawford, James. (2006), The Creation of States in International Law. Second Edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2. Dinstein, Yoram (2017), War, Aggression and Self-Defence. 6th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Heidborn, A. (1908), Manuel de droit public et administratif de l’Empire ottoman. Vol. 1. 2 vols. Vienna-Leipzig: C.W. Stern.
4. Lapidot, Rut, and Moshe Hirsch, eds. (1994), The Jerusalem Question and Its Resolution: Selected Documents. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
فصل کتاب:
1. Chesterman, Simon, and Karin Oellers- Frahm. (2019), “Article 92 of The UN Charter.” In The Statute of International Court of Justice, A Commentary, edited by Christian J Tams and Andreas Zimmermann, 3rd Edition., 208-22. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Crawford, James, Freya Baetens, and Rose Cameron. (2023), “Functions of the International Court of Justice.” In The Cambridge Companio to The International Court of Justice, edited by Carlos Espósito and Kate Parlett, 13-45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Müller, Daniel, and Allain Pellet. (2019), “Article 38.” In The Statute of the International Court of Justice A Commentary, edited by Andreas Zimmermann and Christian J. Tams, Third Edition., 819-962. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.
4. Pierre D`Argent. (2019), “Article 65.” In The Statute of the International Court of Justice A Commentary, edited by Andreas Zimmermann and Christian J Tams, Third., 1783-1811. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
مقاله
1. Brunk, Ingrid, and Monica Hakimi. (2024), “The Prohibition of Annexations and the Foundations of Modern International Law.” American Journal of International Law 118, no. 3: 417-67. https://doi.org/10.1017/ajil.2024.26.
2. “Heirs of Shababo v. (1) Heilen, (2) The Consulate-General of Belgium in Jerusalem and (3) The Consul-General of Belgium in Jerusalem.” International Law Reports 20 (1957): 391-400. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316151471.150.
3. Kolb, Robert. (2022), “Libre Propos sur L’utilisation de la Force par La Russie en Ukraine.” Annuaire Français du droit International 68: 155-71.
4. Lang, Andrew. (2013), “The Role of International Court of Justice in a Context of Fragmentation.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 62, no. 4: 777-812. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589313000286.
5. Ronen, Yaël. (2024), “Schrodinger’s Occupation: West Jerusalem 1948-1949.” Texas International Law Journal 58, no. 3: 119-46.
6. Zogby, James. (1992), “Palestinian Human Rights in the Context of the Historical Development of the Zionist Movement.” In ,, A Compilation of Papers Presented at the United Nations Seminars on the Question of Palestine in 1960–1986. New York: United Nations.
پرونده:
1. International status of Soulh-West Africa, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1950.
2. Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Including East Jerusalem, International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion 2024.
3. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 2004.
4. Western Sahara, Advisoty Opinion, ICJ Reports 1975.
اسناد:
1. 56th Plenary Meeting, Pub. L. No. United Nations General Assmebly 77th Session, UN Doc. A/77/P.V56 (2022).
2. British Mandate For Palestine, Confirmed by Council of League of Nations, United Nations General Assembly, Question of Palestine, (Mandate of Palestine) A/292, 18th April 1947
3. Israeli practices affecting the human rights of the Palestinian people in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, Pub. L. No. United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 77/247 UN Doc. A/77/247 (2023).
4. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, UN Doc. S/RES/478 (1980).
5. Written Statement of the State of Palestine, Request for an Advisory Opinion by the United Nations General Assembly in Resolution 77/247 of 30 December 2022 pertaining to the Question of Palestine (2023).
6. United Nations General Assembly 303 (IV), UN Doc. A/RES/303(IV), 9th December 1949
7. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2253, UN Doc. A/RES/2253 (ES-V), 4th July 1967
8. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2254, UN Doc. A/RES/2254 (ES-V), 4th July 1967
9. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 35/169, UN Doc. A/RES/35/169, 15th December 1980
10. Statute for the City of Jerusalem Approved by the Trusteeship Council at its 81st Meeting, in Annex II, Question of an International Regime for the Jerusalem Area and the Protection of the Holy Places, Special Report of the Trusteeship Council, UN Doc. A/1286, 4th April 1950
11. United Nations Security Council Resolution 252, UN Doc. S/RES/252(1968), 21st May 1968
12. United Nations Security Council Resolution 267, UN Doc. S/RES/267(1969), 3rd July 1969,
13. United Nations Security Council Resolution 271, UN Doc. S/RES/271(1969), 15th September 1969,
14. United Nations Security Council Resolution 298, UN Doc. S/RES/298(1971), 25th September 1971,
15. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, UN Doc. S/RES/478(1980), 20th August 1980,
16. United Nations Security Council Resolution 672, UN Doc. S/RES/672(1990), 12th October 1990
17. Agreement between His Majesty King Abdullah II Bin al-Hussein, the Custodian of the Holy Sites in Jerusalem, and His Excellency Dr. Mahmoud Abbas, Available at https://content.ecf.org.il/files/M00950_JordanPLOJerusalem2013English.pdf
18. Record of the Knesset Proceedings, December 1949
19. Emergency Regulations (Land Requisition—Accommodation of State Institutions in Jerusalem) (Continuance in Force of Orders) Law, 4 Laws of the State of Israel 106, 1950
20. Municipalities Ordinance (Amendment No. 6) Law, 21 Laws of the State of Israel 75, 1967. United Nations Security Council Resolution 298, S/RES/298, 25th September 1971
21. Passed by the Knesset on the 17th Av, 5740 (30th July, 1980) and published in Sefer Ha-Chukkim No. 980 of the 23rd Av, 5740,5th August, 1980
22. Basic-Law: Israel—The Nation State of the Jewish People, 2018.
23. United Nations General Assembly, Question of Palestine, (Mandate of Palestine) A/292, 18th April 1947
24. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX), UN Doc.A/RES/3314(1974)
25. Jerusalem Declared Israel-Occupied City – Government Proclamation”, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs (12 August 1948), available at: Jerusalem Declared Israel-Occupied City, Government Proclamation (jewishvirtuallibrary.org)
26. Plan of Partition with Economic :union:- General Assembly resolution 181 (II) Future government of Palestine, UN Doc.A/RES/181(II)
27. Declaration of Israel's Independence, Issued at Tel Aviv on May 14, 1948, available at: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/israel.asp
28. Hashemite Jordan Kingdom-Israel: General Armistice Agreement, 3rd April 1949
29. Proclamation No.1 of the Israel Defense Forces in Jerusalem, 2nd August 1948
30. Declaration of President Salam to the Advisory Opinion of Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem
دانشنامه:
Hofmann, Rainer. (2020), “Annexation.” Edited by Rüdiger Wolfrum. Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law [MPEIL] (Online Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
کتاب:
1. Crawford, James. (2006), The Creation of States in International Law. Second Edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2. Dinstein, Yoram (2017), War, Aggression and Self-Defence. 6th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Heidborn, A. (1908), Manuel de droit public et administratif de l’Empire ottoman. Vol. 1. 2 vols. Vienna-Leipzig: C.W. Stern.
4. Lapidot, Rut, and Moshe Hirsch, eds. (1994), The Jerusalem Question and Its Resolution: Selected Documents. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
فصل کتاب:
1. Chesterman, Simon, and Karin Oellers- Frahm. (2019), “Article 92 of The UN Charter.” In The Statute of International Court of Justice, A Commentary, edited by Christian J Tams and Andreas Zimmermann, 3rd Edition., 208-22. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Crawford, James, Freya Baetens, and Rose Cameron. (2023), “Functions of the International Court of Justice.” In The Cambridge Companio to The International Court of Justice, edited by Carlos Espósito and Kate Parlett, 13-45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Müller, Daniel, and Allain Pellet. (2019), “Article 38.” In The Statute of the International Court of Justice A Commentary, edited by Andreas Zimmermann and Christian J. Tams, Third Edition., 819-962. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.
4. Pierre D`Argent. (2019), “Article 65.” In The Statute of the International Court of Justice A Commentary, edited by Andreas Zimmermann and Christian J Tams, Third., 1783-1811. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
مقاله
1. Brunk, Ingrid, and Monica Hakimi. (2024), “The Prohibition of Annexations and the Foundations of Modern International Law.” American Journal of International Law 118, no. 3: 417-67. https://doi.org/10.1017/ajil.2024.26.
2. “Heirs of Shababo v. (1) Heilen, (2) The Consulate-General of Belgium in Jerusalem and (3) The Consul-General of Belgium in Jerusalem.” International Law Reports 20 (1957): 391-400. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316151471.150.
3. Kolb, Robert. (2022), “Libre Propos sur L’utilisation de la Force par La Russie en Ukraine.” Annuaire Français du droit International 68: 155-71.
4. Lang, Andrew. (2013), “The Role of International Court of Justice in a Context of Fragmentation.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 62, no. 4: 777-812. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589313000286.
5. Ronen, Yaël. (2024), “Schrodinger’s Occupation: West Jerusalem 1948-1949.” Texas International Law Journal 58, no. 3: 119-46.
6. Zogby, James. (1992), “Palestinian Human Rights in the Context of the Historical Development of the Zionist Movement.” In ,, A Compilation of Papers Presented at the United Nations Seminars on the Question of Palestine in 1960–1986. New York: United Nations.
پرونده:
1. International status of Soulh-West Africa, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1950.
2. Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Including East Jerusalem, International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion 2024.
3. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 2004.
4. Western Sahara, Advisoty Opinion, ICJ Reports 1975.
اسناد:
1. 56th Plenary Meeting, Pub. L. No. United Nations General Assmebly 77th Session, UN Doc. A/77/P.V56 (2022).
2. British Mandate For Palestine, Confirmed by Council of League of Nations, United Nations General Assembly, Question of Palestine, (Mandate of Palestine) A/292, 18th April 1947
3. Israeli practices affecting the human rights of the Palestinian people in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, Pub. L. No. United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 77/247 UN Doc. A/77/247 (2023).
4. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, UN Doc. S/RES/478 (1980).
5. Written Statement of the State of Palestine, Request for an Advisory Opinion by the United Nations General Assembly in Resolution 77/247 of 30 December 2022 pertaining to the Question of Palestine (2023).
6. United Nations General Assembly 303 (IV), UN Doc. A/RES/303(IV), 9th December 1949
7. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2253, UN Doc. A/RES/2253 (ES-V), 4th July 1967
8. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2254, UN Doc. A/RES/2254 (ES-V), 4th July 1967
9. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 35/169, UN Doc. A/RES/35/169, 15th December 1980
10. Statute for the City of Jerusalem Approved by the Trusteeship Council at its 81st Meeting, in Annex II, Question of an International Regime for the Jerusalem Area and the Protection of the Holy Places, Special Report of the Trusteeship Council, UN Doc. A/1286, 4th April 1950
11. United Nations Security Council Resolution 252, UN Doc. S/RES/252(1968), 21st May 1968
12. United Nations Security Council Resolution 267, UN Doc. S/RES/267(1969), 3rd July 1969,
13. United Nations Security Council Resolution 271, UN Doc. S/RES/271(1969), 15th September 1969,
14. United Nations Security Council Resolution 298, UN Doc. S/RES/298(1971), 25th September 1971,
15. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, UN Doc. S/RES/478(1980), 20th August 1980,
16. United Nations Security Council Resolution 672, UN Doc. S/RES/672(1990), 12th October 1990
17. Agreement between His Majesty King Abdullah II Bin al-Hussein, the Custodian of the Holy Sites in Jerusalem, and His Excellency Dr. Mahmoud Abbas, Available at https://content.ecf.org.il/files/M00950_JordanPLOJerusalem2013English.pdf
18. Record of the Knesset Proceedings, December 1949
19. Emergency Regulations (Land Requisition—Accommodation of State Institutions in Jerusalem) (Continuance in Force of Orders) Law, 4 Laws of the State of Israel 106, 1950
20. Municipalities Ordinance (Amendment No. 6) Law, 21 Laws of the State of Israel 75, 1967. United Nations Security Council Resolution 298, S/RES/298, 25th September 1971
21. Passed by the Knesset on the 17th Av, 5740 (30th July, 1980) and published in Sefer Ha-Chukkim No. 980 of the 23rd Av, 5740,5th August, 1980
22. Basic-Law: Israel—The Nation State of the Jewish People, 2018.
23. United Nations General Assembly, Question of Palestine, (Mandate of Palestine) A/292, 18th April 1947
24. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX), UN Doc.A/RES/3314(1974)
25. Jerusalem Declared Israel-Occupied City – Government Proclamation”, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs (12 August 1948), available at: Jerusalem Declared Israel-Occupied City, Government Proclamation (jewishvirtuallibrary.org)
26. Plan of Partition with Economic :union:- General Assembly resolution 181 (II) Future government of Palestine, UN Doc.A/RES/181(II)
27. Declaration of Israel's Independence, Issued at Tel Aviv on May 14, 1948, available at: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/israel.asp
28. Hashemite Jordan Kingdom-Israel: General Armistice Agreement, 3rd April 1949
29. Proclamation No.1 of the Israel Defense Forces in Jerusalem, 2nd August 1948
30. Declaration of President Salam to the Advisory Opinion of Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem
دانشنامه:
Hofmann, Rainer. (2020), “Annexation.” Edited by Rüdiger Wolfrum. Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law [MPEIL] (Online Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
