Comparative Law Researches

Comparative Law Researches

The Legal Framework for the Protection of Privacy in the Digital Environment: A Comparative Study of the Legal Systems of the United States, the European Union, and Iran

Document Type : مقالات علمی پژوهشی

Authors
abdolsaeed shojaei
shahram rahmani
Assistant Professor in Private Law, Faculty Faculty of Payam Noor University Tehran, Iran
10.48311/clr.2025.101678.0
Abstract
The development of digital technologies, alongside their undeniable advantages, has generated serious challenges for the protection of privacy. The emergence of social networks, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things has enabled the large-scale collection of personal data by both public and private actors, thereby significantly diminishing individuals' control over their own information. Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach, this research examines the challenges of privacy protection across three legal systems: the United States, the European Union, and Iran. In the United States, the legal framework for privacy protection is based on statutes such as the Privacy Act of 1974 and the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), which emphasize self-regulation and the role of the private sector. However, due to a lack of regulatory coherence and heavy reliance on voluntary compliance mechanisms, this system faces significant enforcement challenges. By contrast, the European Union, through the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), has established a comprehensive and stringent regime grounded in principles such as transparency, consent, and the right to be forgotten. In Iran, although constitutional principles—particularly Articles 22 and 25 of the Constitution—along with sectoral laws such as the Computer Crimes Act and the Electronic Commerce Act provide fragmented forms of privacy protection, the absence of a comprehensive data protection statute, regulatory fragmentation, and weak oversight mechanisms constitute major challenges. The findings of this research emphasize the importance of employing protective technologies such as encryption and digital identity management, as well as the critical role of user education and cooperation between governmental and civil institutions in enhancing data protection.
Keywords
Privacy
Cyberspace
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
Computer Crimes Act
Personal Data Protection in Iran
Subjects
7-2) منابع انگلیسی
A) Books
1.    Gutwirth, S., Poullet, Y., De Hert, P., De Terwangne, C., & Nouwt, S. (Eds.) (2009). Reinventing data protection?, Springer Science & Business Media.
 
B) Articles
2.    Abikoye, B. E., Adelusi, W., Umeorah, S. C., & Adelaja, A. O. (2024). “Integrating risk management in fintech and traditional financial institutions through AI and machine learning”.
3.    Aho, B., & Duffield, R. (2020). “Beyond surveillance capitalism”, Economy and Society.
4.    Alabdan, R. (2020). “Phishing attacks survey”, Future Internet.
5.    Annas, G. J. (1989). “The Supreme Court, privacy, and abortion”, New England Journal of Medicine.LK.
6.    Berween, M. (2002). “The fundamental human rights: an Islamic perspective”, The International Journal of Human Rights.
7.    Bignami, F. (2007). “Privacy and law enforcement in the European Union”, Chicago Journal of International Law.
8.    Citron, D. K., & Solove, D. J. (2022). “Privacy harm”, Boston University Law Review.
9.    Daugirdas, K. (2020). “International organizations and the creation of customary international law”, European Journal of International Law.
10. Dove, E. S. (2018). “The EU general data protection regulation”, Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics.
11. Fibrianti, N., et al. (2023). “Legal Culture and Legal Consciousness of Consumers”, JILS.
12. Hamilton, V. E. (2006). “Principles of US family law”, Fordham Law Review.
13. Helscher, D. (1994). “Griswold v. Connecticut and the unenumerated right of privacy”, Northern Illinois University Law Review.
14. Holt, J., & Malčić, S. (2015). “The privacy ecosystem”, Journal of Information Policy.
15. Hoofnagle, C. J., Van Der Sloot, B., & Borgesius, F. Z. (2019). “The European Union general data protection regulation: what it is and what it means”, Information & Communications Technology Law.
16. Husák, M., Čermák, M., Jirsík, T., & Čeleda, P. (2016). “HTTPS traffic analysis and client identification using passive SSL/TLS fingerprinting”, EURASIP Journal on Information Security.
17. Kaur, P., Kumar, M., & Bhandari, A. (2017). “A review of detection approaches for distributed denial of service attacks”, Systems Science & Control Engineering.
18. Ke, T. T., & Sudhir, K. (2023). “Privacy rights and data security”, Management Science.
19. Kramer, S., & Bradfield, J. C. (2010). “A general definition of malware”, Journal in Computer Virology.
20. Levin, A., & Nicholson, M. J. (2005). “Privacy law in the United States, the EU and Canada”, University of Ottawa Law & Technology Journal.
21. Luevanos, C., Elizarraras, J., Hirschi, K., & Yeh, J. H. (2017). “Analysis on the security and use of password managers”, In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Computing, Applications and Technologies (PDCAT).
22. Mohamed, D. (2012). “Sustaining the Right to Privacy in E-Commerce Environment”, OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development.
23. Richard A. Posner (1977). “The right of privacy”, Georgia Law Review.
24. Rubinstein, I. S., Lee, R. D., & Schwartz, P. M. (2008). “Data mining and Internet profiling”, University of Chicago Law Review.
25. Sapiński, A. (2023). “The importance and challenges of information security in the digital age”, Scientific Journal of Bielsko-Biala School of Finance and Law.
26. Sekhon, V. (2003). “The civil rights of others”, Texas Forum on Civil Liberties & Civil Rights.
27. Sembiring, T. B., et al. (2024). “Digital Privacy Rights in the Age of Big Data”, Global International Journal of Innovative Research.
28. Steeves, V., & Mačėnaitė, M. (2022). “Data protection and children's online privacy”, In Research Handbook on Privacy and Data Protection Law (pp. 358–374). Edward Elgar Publishing.
29. Tan, C., Zhang, L., & Bao, L. (2020). “A Deep Exploration of BitLocker Encryption and Security Analysis”, In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 20th International Conference on Communication Technology (ICCT).
30. Taslitz, A. E. (2002). “The Fourth Amendment in the twenty-first century”, Law and Contemporary Problems.
31. Wagner, J., & Benecke, A. (2016). “National Legislation within the Framework of the GDPR”, European Data Protection Law Review.
32. Westin, A. F. (2003). “Social and political dimensions of privacy”, Journal of Social Issues.
33. Yuejia Qu (2024). “Privacy Protection in the Digital Age: Challenges and Strategies”, Transactions on Social Science, Education and Humanities Research.
 
[In Persian]:
A) Books
34. Akhondi, Mahmoud (2000). Ayin-e Dadresi-e Keyfari [Criminal Procedure], Vol. 4. Qom: Entesharat-e Daneshgah-e Qom (Eshraq).
35. Mansour, Jahangir (2008). Ghanoun-e Mojazat-e Eslami [Islamic Penal Code], Tehran: Entesharat-e Kaj.
36. Shokri, Reza; Sirous, Ghader (2006). Ghanoun-e Mojazat-e Eslami dar Nazm-e Hoghughi Konouni [Islamic Penal Code in the Current Legal Order], Tehran: Entesharat-e Mohajer.
37. Tale’e Kharasand, Hadi (2006). Ghanoun-e Mojazat-e Eslami [Islamic Penal Code], Tehran: Nashr-e Jamal al-Hagh.
 
B) Articles
38. Drummond, Ann & Moos, Ann (2025). “Hoosh-e Masnou’i va Ghanoun-gozari: Yek Morour-e Kolli [Artificial Intelligence and Lawmaking: An Overview]”, Translated by: Ali Bahadori Jahromi, Faslnameh Pazhouhesh-haye Hoghugh-e Tatbiqi (Quarterly of Comparative Law Studies), 29(2), 187-213.
39. Gharayagh Zandi, Ahmad; Jamali Posht Masari, Soudabeh; Hafezi, Somayeh (2015). “Ahkam-e Harim-e Khosousi dar Hoghugh-e Iran [Rules of Privacy in Iranian Law]”, Majaleh Motale’at-e Oloum-e Ejtemaei (Journal of Social Sciences Studies), 1(1), 148-153.
40. Larijani, Ali & Hashemi Shahroudi, Mahmoud (2009). “Ghanoun-e Jara’em-e Rayane’i [Computer Crimes Act]”, Faslnameh Ghazavat (Judicial Quarterly), 57.
41. Shahbaz Ghahfarrokhi, Sajjad (2013). “Harim-e Khosousi-ye Fiziki-ye Afrad dar Ayineh-ye Feqh-e Emamiyeh va Hoghugh-e Iran [Physical Privacy of Individuals in the Light of Imami Jurisprudence and Iranian Law]”, Majaleh Pazhouhesh-haye Feqhi (Journal of Jurisprudential Studies), 9(1), 55-70.
42. Taghipour Darzi Naqibi, Mohammad Hossein; Mousavi Khatir, Seyedeh Tahereh; Taleqan Ghaffari, Mehdi (2024). “Mohafezat az Harim-e Khosousi va Etela’at-e Shakhsi: Motale’eh-ye Tatbiqi beyn-e Hoghugh-e Iran va Hoghugh-e Canada [Protection of Privacy and Personal Data: A Comparative Study between Iranian Law and Canadian Law]”, Majaleh Pazhouhesh-haye Hoghughi (Journal of Legal Research), 23(58), 655-682.
43. Va’ezi, Mojtaba & Alipour, Ali (2010). “Barrasi-ye Mavazin-e Hoghughi Hakem bar Harim-e Khosousi va Hemayat az An dar Hoghugh-e Iran [An Analysis of the Legal Standards Governing Privacy and Its Protection in Iranian Law]”, Majaleh Hoghugh-e Khosousi Daneshgah-e Tehran (Journal of Private Law, University of Tehran), 17, 133-163.